Learning – Importance of Assesment

When sing the clip spent in any schoolroom, we see that big part of this clip is spent on appraisal. It is a â€Å"major subscriber to raising criterions in schools† ( Cohen, Manion & A ; Morrison. 2006, p.323 ) and besides â€Å"assessment makes a difference to learning.† ( Naylor, S. , Keogh, B. & A ; Goldsworthy, A. 2006. p.5 ) Whether the difference appraisal makes is positive or negative depends on how it is used. It is besides of import for instructors to â€Å"devise ways of measuring and describing which give students indicants of what they know and can make and which maintain them frontward looking and optimistic† ( Bryce, T. , 2008b ) Appraisal can be divided into two chief types: summational appraisal and formative appraisal. Summational appraisal can be described as â€Å"the scaling of larning that has or has non taken place† ( Bryce, 2008a, p581 ) . Meanwhile, formative appraisal is linked with â€Å"supplying meaningful feedback for larning to happen, assisting persons to travel frontward from their current position.† ( Bryce, 2008a, p581 ) Formative appraisal has been under development for a figure of old ages in Scots schools and â€Å"it follows that to set up good formative appraisal patterns in schoolrooms requires that most instructors make important changes.† ( Black, P. , Harrison, C. , Lee, C. , Marshall, B. & A ; Wiliam, D. , 2004, p2 ) However, â€Å"teachers can non avoid a summational role† ( Black, P. , 1999, p131 ) as they have certification to finish including school studies to parents. Possibly a balance should be between the two theoretical accounts of appraisal as in some instances â€Å"summative trials can be helpful, provided that they are based on a sound theoretical account of learning.† ( Black, P. , 1999, p131 ) One enterprise associated with formative appraisal is Assessment is for Learning ( AifL ) . This â€Å"focuses on the spread between where the scholar is in their acquisition, and where they need to be† ( Learning and Teaching Scotland, 2007 ) and involves â€Å"any appraisal for which the first precedence is to function the intent of advancing pupils ‘ learning.† ( Black, P. , Harrison, C. , Lee, C. , Marshall, B. & A ; Wiliam, D. , 2004, p2 ) Appraisal is for Learning â€Å"has concentrated upon developing the quality of formative schoolroom appraisal throughout the country.† ( Bryce, T. , 2008a, p.591 ) and as mentioned above, instructors will necessitate to do ‘significant alterations ‘ to accomplish this. In order to do these alterations, a instructor has to reflect upon what has already been tried in order to alter schemes which did non work and construct upon what was successful. A instructor besides has to non merely inquire pupils inqui ries but besides ask inquiries of themselves, such as â€Å"To what extent do our acquisition and instruction attacks help pupils to go successful scholars? † and â€Å"To what extent do we utilize students ‘ responses efficaciously to place what pupils understand and to assist program for future acquisition and instruction? † ( Learning and Teaching Scotland, 2008b ) Bearing this in head, formative appraisal pattern was observed and evaluated whilst on arrangement and besides tried by myself with some step of success. In one case, a 2nd twelvemonth scientific discipline category was observed being instructed to fix a posting in groups on â€Å"how a molecule of O gets from the gases in the air to assist travel your large toe† . This was during the unit on organic structure systems and the students had antecedently been taught the information required to finish the posting. At first, the students themselves seemed doubtful as to how to travel about the undertaking as they had been given no other information with the exclusion of the rubric. However, after some treatment in the groups they seemed to come to grips with what they were being asked and set about the undertaking with enthusiasm. The category was given two periods to finish their undertaking and in this clip they completed some genuinely first-class postings which were displayed w ith pride in the corridor. Upon detecting this category finish this undertaking, I was surprised to see how rapidly the undertaking was comprehended by some students, particularly since it was non made clear by the instructor from the start â€Å"what was to be learned and what success would be like.† ( Bryce, T. , 2008a, p592 ) This comprehension was rapidly followed by some high quality interactions between the students as to how they would travel about their postings, discoursing precisely how the molecule of O travels through the organic structure and the procedures involved. This was when I realized that though non phrased into a inquiry, the statement the instructor of the category had asked the students to see was thought arousing and required them to truly reflect on their old acquisition and therefore was following with the cardinal thoughts of Assessment is For Learning. During the two period session, the category instructor, and myself, were continually go arounding the groups and inquiring t he students more inquiries on the topic, arousing responses, giving positive feedback on the postings the students were making but besides foregrounding countries for betterment. This I felt truly boosted the students ‘ assurance and enhanced their desire to make good in the undertaking. It besides incorporated the â€Å"two stars and a wish strategies† described by Bryce ( 2008a, p592 ) . At the terminal of the activity pupils besides got to measure each other ‘s postings foregrounding parts they liked and would utilize in the hereafter. Overall, I felt that this two period session incorporated Assessment is for Learning techniques really good and is something I would utilize in the hereafter in this subject. During my ain instruction pattern, I tried a figure of times to integrate Assessment is for Learning into my lessons. In one lesson with a 3rd twelvemonth biological science category, they were dissecting flowers in order to be able to place the parts of the generative system and depict their maps. At the start of the lesson, the students were informed of the acquisition results and besides the success standards so they could state for themselves if they had been successful, hence they were cognizant â€Å"what was to be learned and what success would be like.† ( Bryce, T. , 2008a, p592 ) After the practical, to reenforce the cardinal points and besides to measure what they had learned, I provided the students with a matching exercising where, in braces, they had to fit parts of the flower with their map. This exercising enabled students to join forces with each other to acquire the right consequences. In this instance I truly felt that I was utilizing â€Å"assessment as a t ool for learning.† ( Naylor, S. , Keogh, B. & A ; Goldsworthy, A. , 2006, p.7 ) Although possibly non every bit seamlessly as a more experient instructor. Another schoolroom experience involved a different 2nd twelvemonth category, this clip on the sound and light subject. Not being a natural philosophies specializer, it can be hard to add involvement to this subject and so a biological science angle was added to a few lessons. During this the category were comparing human eyes and ears to those of selected animate beings and traveling around the category in a circuit finishing undertakings at each station. This was done in braces and so interaction was taking topographic point at each measure along with job resolution, comparings and fact happening. In the following lesson, much like the first 2nd twelvemonth category, a posting was created on one of the animate beings in the category circuit to inform people of the differences in this animate being ‘s eyes and ears and how they benefit the animate being. Much like the first 2nd twelvemonth category, feedback was given at each phase and the students responded good to this. The t erminal consequence achieved was due to acquiring the students involved at every phase, giving them feedback and allowing the students identify what will assist in their undertaking. During my school experience, good Appraisal is for Learning pattern was observed often. However, this was chiefly in a few of the instructors and non across the whole section. The enterprise was brought up at departmental meetings and so was in development but non to the same grade as other sections or so, other schools. Appraisal of larning â€Å"involves working with the scope of available grounds that enables staff and the wider appraisal community to look into on students ‘ progress.† ( Learning and Teaching Scotland, 2007b ) This means roll uping the consequences of summational appraisal and utilizing them to collate tabular arraies and statistics and comparing these with other schools. This pattern, called local moderateness, is to â€Å"ensure appraisals are consistent between categories and schools.† ( Learning and Teaching Scotland, 2007b ) The consequences used are valid, dependable and comparable and this is why they are utilised. Appraisal of acquisition is besides used â€Å"where ‘league tabular arraies ‘ of overall public presentation are published.† ( Cohen, L. , Manion, L. & A ; Morrison, K. , 2006, p333 ) This can do jobs in countries where conference table place is of import to some, as â€Å"teachers teach to the test† ( Cohen, L. , Ma nion, L. & A ; Morrison, K. , 2006, p333 ) Thereby contradicting all other signifiers of appraisal and acquisition and denying students cardinal experiences. In countries where high conference tabular array places are of import, inclusion is another affair which must be addressed. There is an interesting tenseness in this field as some schools may be unwilling to show students for certain tests or topics in general due to the belief that this student will negatively impact their conference tabular array standings. With patterns like this go arounding it is clear that â€Å"schools and instructors need counsel and assurance with respect to where they should put their professional support and efforts.† ( Bryce, T. , 2008, p594 ) If different schemes for appraisal and acquisition were in topographic point so possibly consequences would better without the irresistible impulse to ‘teach to the trial ‘ . This leads on to the theory that rating students ‘ work should be discouraged for much of the clip as described by Black, P. & A ; Wiliam, D. ( 2001 ) . During school arrangement, in first and 2nd twelvemonth categories, it was observed that when students were given the consequences to any signifier of summational appraisal, the first thing they did was comparison Markss with their friends and spouses in the category, thereby making a competitory ambiance. Children accomplishing a hapless class are so unwilling to portion their consequences with friends and may finally see themselves as unable to larn. It has been shown that â€Å"pupils who come to see themselves as unable to larn normally cease to take school earnestly – many of them will be riotous within school, others will fall back to truancy.† ( Black, P. & A ; Wiliam, D. , 2001, p3 ) So we find ourselves in a state of affairs where utilizing summational appraisal for rating can hold a negative consequence on some students, but is necessary for â€Å"accountability of instructors and pupils to interested parties.† ( Cohen, L. , Manion, L. & A ; Morrison, K. , 2006, p327 ) Is there a manner in which classs can be used constructively? On detecting lower school, it could be argued that possibly utilizing chiefly formative appraisal in these twelvemonth groups would be more effectual. As mentioned above students are chiefly concerned with being competitory when it comes to assessment classs and so the usage of â€Å"approaches in which students are compared with one another† ( Black, P. & A ; Wiliam, D. , 2001, p4 ) should be discouraged in favor of supplying feedback to pupils â€Å"about the peculiar qualities of his or her work, with advice on what he or she can make to improve.† ( Black, P. & A ; Wiliam, D. , 2001, p6 ) This scheme avoids comparings between students in lower school and allows them to to the full bask the acquisition experience without the competitory component. It is noted that summational appraisal can non be avoided wholly in these twelvemonth groups, peculiarly with respects to coverage and besides class picks for the undermentioned old ages. While detecting in-between and upper school, the rough competition from lower school was non as evident, but clearly non absent wholly. With this in head, utilizing classs constructively from 3rd twelvemonth onwards could be good as students are heading towards external appraisals. In this instance, being cognizant of the class they are presently accomplishing in concurrence with advice on how to better may be good to these students. On arrangement, it was observed in in-between and upper school categories that feedback centered entirely on the class which was achieved and really seldom mentioned ways which students could better, aside from analyzing. This was particularly evident in the top subdivisions for the topic, where the general consensus was that pupils merely wanted their classs and could construct upon them themselves. Support was made available to pupils in the signifier of prep nines and supported survey ; nevertheless there was no specific feedback offered to single stu dents. We know that â€Å"tests and prep can be an priceless usher to learning† ( Black, P. & A ; Wiliam, D, 2001, p8 ) every bit long as these undertakings have clear, relevant larning aims: but supplying feedback every bit good as the class should â€Å"give each student counsel on how to better, and each must be given chance and assist to work at the improvement.† ( Black, P. & A ; Wiliam, D. , 2001, p8 ) It is believed that utilizing classs in this constructive mode will be valuable to both students and instructors, and promote students to larn efficaciously and good. At present, the agreements for enfranchisement in the upper secondary school, Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework ( SCQF ) Levels 3 – 5, comprise of two different manners of classs: the long standing Standard Grade class and the newer Intermediate 1 and 2 classs. The SCQF figure indicates â€Å"a degree to demo how hard the acquisition is and a figure of recognition points which indicate the size of the qualification† ( Davidson, C. , 2008, p612 ) Using this system makes â€Å"qualifications easier to depict and understand† ( Davidson, C. , 2008, p612 ) and besides â€Å"enable employers, scholars and the populace in general to understand the full scope of Scots makings and how the makings relate to each other.† ( The Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework, 2003 ) Standard Grade classs were introduced in the 1980 ‘s as a replacing to the O-grade. The purpose behind this was to â€Å"enable all students, whatever their degree of ability, to follow suited classs and addition awards† ( The Scottish Office, 1996 ) and due to the fact that pupils sit two degrees of test and that all students take portion in the class to level, this has been achieved. The Standard Grade provides students with many chances while at school and as a consequence there are a figure of benefits associated with them. These include: a broad scope of classs on offer ; scrutinies are completed at two degrees to supply students with the best possible chance for a good class and the inclusive nature of the classs as they provide appraisal for all. Intermediate 1 and 2 classs were introduced as portion of the National Qualification ( NQ ) model. They have been â€Å"designed to be every bit flexible as possible to run into the demands of all students.† ( Learning and Teaching Scotland, 2008a ) In add-on to this flexibleness, new classs have been added to supplement the more traditional topics in order to run into the demands of today ‘s workplace. These include media surveies and biotechnology. The construction and appraisal of Intermediate classs differs in a figure of ways from Standard Grades. To get down with, Intermediate classs are structured into three units of similar lengths whereas Standard Grades can incorporate any figure of subjects, illustrations being Chemistry which covers 15 subjects and Biology which covers seven subjects. These subjects can besides be of changing lengths. In the Intermediate classs, each unit ends with a trial called a NAB ( National Assessment Bank ) . Each terminal of unit trial must be passed in order to sit the concluding test. The unit besides stands entirely as a faculty so that even if a student does non go through the concluding test, the single units will supply some grounds of accomplishment for the student. These units are assessed internally in schools and can be re-assessed if a student is non successful on the first effort â€Å"The unit construction of Intermediate makings is considered to be their best characteristic, sup plying flexibleness and motive for immature people.† ( The Scots Government, 2008 ) This unit construction besides helps to supply a more streamlined passage between Intermediate and Higher as the classs are constructed on the same format. Standard Grade operates otherwise in that while each subject in these classs may hold an terminal of unit trial to finish, it plays no portion in whether the student will go through or neglect the class other than supplying instructors with grounds for grade anticipations or entreaties. Where students do hold influence over their concluding grade in Standard Grade is in work submitted to the Scots Qualifications Authority ( SQA ) which is completed in category. In Science topics, this is in the signifier of practical abilities which are assessed over the class ; in English, a pagination of written work is submitted. Work completed in category can be worked on over a period of clip and alteration of this can go on until both instructor and student are satisfied that the best possible class has been achieved, giving ample chance for re-assessment of the work. This, while non playing as large a portion in the award as the concluding test, does hold some influence on the class awarded. T his work besides benefits the students in that while they are still being assessed, it is non under nerve-racking exam conditions, and this may supply the environment for them to work to their best potency, to the full supported by their schoolroom instructor. Formative appraisal is going more widely used in schools, nevertheless recent experience shows that this is non true universally. Observations in both Standard Grade and Intermediate 2 categories while on arrangement have lead me to believe that summational appraisal is still the more normally used in categories, peculiarly in the upper school. It could be said that â€Å"the demands of the SQA dominate school life in the upper phases of secondary.† ( Bryce, T. , 2008a, p581 ) While both Standard Grade and Intermediate 1 and 2 classs can be argued to be both effectual and successful, it has to be considered â€Å"whether these makings in their current signifier best suit the demands of tomorrow ‘s immature people, employers and other users of qualifications.† ( The Scots Government, 2008 ) This is chiefly due to the nearing debut of Curriculum for Excellence into schools in the coming old ages and the demand for a new signifier of appraisal which will suit in with the experiences and results which pupils will take portion in. Standard Grade and Intermediate are utile now, nevertheless â€Å"neither of these two systems reflects the values, intents and rules of Curriculum for Excellence.† ( The Scots Government, 2008 ) One solution for the job of holding incompatible assessment methods is the debut of a new general making at SCQF degrees 4 and 5 to replace the antique Standard Grade and Intermediate makings. This will besides profit Scotland ‘s appraisal patterns which have â€Å"developed steadily over recent old ages but to a point of complexness which demands simplification† ( Bryce, T. , 2008a, p581 ) However, both Standard Grade and Intermediate 1 and 2 have good characteristics which would be utile in the new appraisal construction. â€Å"The inclusive attack to enfranchisement contained in Standard Grade† ( The Scots Government, 2009 ) is one point which should be considered when planing the new making. Integrating this appraisal for all is of import in planing a new making as inclusion is a major factor. We have to be able to â€Å"support acquisition and react reasonably to the differences that exist across groups while at the same clip supplying comparable and dependable evidence† ( Darling-Hammond, L. & A ; Falk, B. , 1997, p57 ) The current Standard Grade operates a 3 degree system with foundation, general and recognition and the thought of this should be carried frontward but in the signifier of SCQF degrees 4 and 5. For students executing below this degree, Access 3 certifications will be available. Using this system, the inclusive attack of Standard Grade is still in operation and no student will be restricted in any manner with respects to assessment. Another utile characteristic of assessment construction at present is â€Å"the unit based construction of Intermediate qualifications.† ( The Scots Government, 2009 ) These units provide good points for internal appraisal throughout the class and awards received in these appraisals give students something to construct on for the hereafter. Using Markss from these unit appraisals as portion of the concluding awarded class would besides supply utile continual appraisal alternatively of trusting strictly on the concluding test. Besides mentioning to the Intermediate construction of appraisal, the manner in which they are graded would be preferred to the construction of Standard Grade Markss. Using the A – D signifier or marker would extinguish any confusion associated with the Standard Grade 1 – 7 strategy. It would besides follow the form presently in topographic point for Higher and Advanced Higher, once more associating the degrees and leting for an easier passage. In topics of a practical nature such a scientific discipline, proficient, art and music ; more accent should be placed on the practical side in the appraisal. A larger per centum of Markss should be awarded to practical abilities as they are in the really kernel of what these topics are about. One manner in which this could be possible in scientific discipline could be to finish a practical abilities folio which could include an probe where the students would hold to plan and transport out experiments and so describe on them. This is something which presently operates in Advanced Higher but is felt, if used right, would besides be good at lower degrees. In the same vena, it is felt that technological progresss should, where possible, be incorporated into the course of study. There are legion illustrations in the current course of study where outdated scientific discipline is still taught, such as in Standard Grade Physics which still teaches students about cathode beam telecastings in an epoch where LCD and plasma telecastings are the norm. In instances such as these, it is felt that possibly students would expose more enthusiasm in category if they could associate what they are larning to the universe outside the schoolroom. When covering with appraisal, it is of import to understand that any determinations on alterations to be made will non merely impact the current students, but besides pupils in old ages to come and therefore cautiousness should be exercised when any alterations come into consequence.Bibliography* Black, P. ( 1999 ) . Assessment, Learning Theories and Testing Systems. In Murphy, P. ( Ed. ) Learners, larning and appraisal ( pp. 118 – 134 ) . London: Paul Chapman Printing * Black, P. & A ; Wiliam, D. ( 2001 ) Inside the black box Retrieved 18th March 2009 from hypertext transfer protocol: //ngfl.northumberland.gov.uk/keystage3ictstrategy/Assessment/blackbox.pdf * Black, P. , Harrison, C. , Lee, C. , Marshall, B. & A ; Wiliam, D. ( 2004 ) . Appraisal for acquisition: seting it into pattern Hymen: Open University Press * Bryce, T. ( 2008a ) . Appraisal in Scots Schools. In Bryce, T.G.K. & A ; Humes, W. M. ( Eds. ) Scots instruction 3rd edition: beyond degeneration ( pp. 581- 594 ) . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press * Bryce, T. ( 2008b ) . Principles of assessment Lecture slides retrieved on 18th March 2009 from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.foe.strath.ac.uk/Login/FAV1-0000F728/FOV1-0000F72A/FOV1-0000F983/I000E6669? DF0=0 * Cohen, L. , Manion, L. & A ; Morrison, K. ( 2006 ) . A usher to learning pattern ( 5th Ed ) Oxon: RoutledgeFalmer * Darling-Hammond, L. & A ; Falk, B. ( 1997 ) . Supporting instruction and acquisition for all pupils: Policies for reliable appraisal systems. In Goodwin, A. L. ( Ed. ) Appraisal for equity and inclusion: encompassing all our kids ( pp. 51 – 76 ) . London: Routledge * Davidson, C. ( 2008 ) . SQA Findings on Scots Attainments. In Bryce, T.G.K. & A ; Humes, W.M. ( Eds. ) Scots instruction 3rd edition: beyond degeneration ( pp. 608 – 626 ) . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press * Learning and Teaching Scotland. ( 2007a, November 27 ) . Appraisal is for larning: debut Retrieved March 17th 2009 from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ltscotland.org.uk/assess/for/intro.asp * Learning and Teaching Scotland. ( 2007b, December 10 ) . Appraisal of larning Retrieved March 18th 2009 from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ltscotland.org.uk/assess/of/intro.asp * Learning and Teaching Scotland. ( 2008b, August 20 ) . Appraisal for acquisition: high quality interactions Retrieved March 18th 2009 from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ltscotland.org.uk/assess/toolkit/schools/highqualityinteractions.asp  · Learning and Teaching Scotland. ( 2008a, December 15 ) . What are national makings? Retrieved 18th March 2009 from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ltscotland.org.uk/nq/nqframework/whatarenqs.asp * Naylor, S. , Keogh, B. & A ; Goldsworthy, A. ( 2006 ) . Active appraisal: thought, larning and appraisal in scientific discipline London: David Fulton Publishers * The Scots Credit and Qualifications Framework ( 2003, October ) . An debut to the Scots recognition and makings framework Retrieved March 18th 2009 from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.sqa.org.uk/files_ccc/IntroductiontoSCQF-2ndEdition.pdf * The Scots Government. ( 2008, April 24 ) . Consultation for future agreements of national makings Retrieved March 18th 2009 from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.scotland.gov.uk/News/This-Week/Speeches/smarter/natqual * The Scots Government. ( 2009, February ) . Research on the audience on the following coevals of national makings in Scotland Retrieved March 18th 2009 from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/261963/0078333.pdf * The Scots Office. ( 1996 ) . Scots certification of instruction: standard class Retrieved 18th March 2009 from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.scotland.gov.uk/library/documents/standard.htm

The Pros and Cons of Police Discretion

Drawing the line between the appropriate functions of discretion among members of the police force remains to be an important component of policing. With the discovery of police discretion, there had been different debates as to its importance and hindrance in the application of law within communities. Many arguments have been placed as a result of such discovery and have prompted different set of opinions and views concerning its continued practice.In the end, by actively enforcing the needs of accountability and the synchronization of processes, the process of discretion can be minimized or limited at a certain extent wherein it is due compliant with the rule of law and objective in nature. The way policing has been practiced in the realms of law enforcement has spurred an enhanced approach in the dealing with crime prevention and maintenance of peace and security within a particular community. However, the subjectivity of interpretation among police officers when it comes to exerc ising discretion has resulted in various criticisms since its discovery.Due to this, there had been clamors for the abolishment and the promotion of its control. The paper seeks to showcase the relative pros and cons of police discretion. By showcasing its relative strengths and weaknesses, it exposes the reality behind the subjectivity and bias of such actions. Realizing such scenario, there is a need for a redefinition and structuring of police objectives that will ensure the application of the rules and laws while at the same time ensuring that police discretion is rooted on objectivity and accountability.Defining Discretion Before dwelling deeper in the relative strengths and weaknesses of police discretion, it is first important to emphasize on its meaning and its relationship with the police practice. By properly defining the term ‘discretion’, it may be proper to link it to the police practice since such term is associated with different meanings. Linking it with policing objectives, the term ‘discretion’ must actively partake and coincide with (1) judgment, (2) choice, (3) discernment, (4) liberty and (5) license (APSU, 2001).Seeing such, ‘discretion’ means the freedom in making choices responsibly under the circumstances aforementioned. â€Å"Discretion designates power or freedom to judge and decide what needs to be done in a particular situation† (Seri, p. 2). Establishing parameters and causes Also before elaborating on the strengths and weaknesses of police discretion, it is also proper to point out the relative causes of such concept and how it has cultivated the development of such practice. Determining such parameters, one must look at the variables or factors that enhance police judgments and leads them to practice discretion.Examples include (1) offender variables, (2) situation variables, and (3) system variables (APSU, 2001). Under the element of offender variables, the practice of subjectivity and prejudice somehow are manifested in the practice of law enforcement. â€Å"Gender and mental health status affect how police handle many incidents† (APSU, 2001). Such issue only brings about unequal practice and in the facilitation of sanctions and punishments for different violations. Another important variable involves the situation where the police enforces and uses discretion.It is in this situation that the priority is given on things that are unimportant rather than the actual case (APSU, 2001). This lack of logical judgment on what matters most often results in a biased and inaccurate results. Lastly, the system in a society also serves as an important and tool for the practice of discretion among the police force. The actual practice of discretion is dependent on the current situations that a system might be facing. Such system in relationship with discretion varies, that is why such practice also is different depending on the particular situation.(APSU, 2001) Pos itive Outcomes After the discussion concerning its definition and relative parameters and causes, the paper will highlight the positive outcomes of police discretion. One important outcome of the issue is that it legitimizes the role of the police not only as the protector of laws but at the same time they are given the interpreting power to analyze situations. â€Å"The police enjoy innumerable opportunities for discretionary judgment and wider margins of discretion than any other sector within the state apparatus† (Seri, p. 3).Another important outcome of the said practice is that it creates a different aura for the police force that practice discretion. The creation of laws are only relevant if they are ought to be enforced and practiced. â€Å"Their discretionary power allows police officers to transform the spirit of laws. With their interpretation of a particular issue, there is a legitimization of its overall hold of a particular society in creating control† (Se ri, p. 3) The practice of discretion also improves the way police enforces the rules and regulations stipulated by the law.Since they serve as the executor and protector of such laws, they are expected to address every challenges and hurdles given to them. â€Å"Like other â€Å"street level bureaucrats†, police officers must adapt to law and norms on specific situations, deciding on the extent which legal policy extend reflects the original law on the books† (Seri, p. 3). Lastly, the practice of police discretion is an important factor of police power and the maintenance of its hold and grasp of people within a particular community.The concept of discretion in itself is creating the determination of who are good and law-abiding citizens and who are criminals (Seri, p. 4). Such power remains to be vital in the overall functions of police practice. Negative Consequences Given the positive influences that police discretion creates, there are also implications in such pra ctice. One important consequence is the relative abuse of power among police officers in the issue of discretion. Such actions often emanates on both the extremity and unequal judgment given by authorities.â€Å"The exercise of police discretion to stop, search, arrest or charge suspects is now regarded as inevitable and not necessarily improper, given the limits of police resources, variations in the seriousness of offending behaviours and the inappropriateness of criminal law for dealing with some situations of conflict and disorder† (Bergen, 2005, p. 127). In addition, there seems to be a lapse and undue changing of laws that somehow have been an effect of irresponsible police discretion.Prior to its original function of responsible practice under the basis of laws, there is now a scenario that challenges the foundation of accountability and laws. â€Å"Discretion allows the police to challenge mechanisms of accountability and to erode the laws and rules that they are req uired to enforce, in part because of the proactive character of policing and the limited, retroactive character of accountability† (Seri, p. 4) Such misuse can create different problematic instances in the realm of law enforcement.The practice of discretion is often times biased and prejudiced upon citizens and results in a negative impression and simplification among races and ethnicity in society. There are â€Å"instances of police stereotyping, harassment and breaches of basic human rights† (Bergen, 2005, p. 127-128). Controlling Police Discretion Given the relative importance and challenges brought about by the issue of police discretion, there needs to be a controlling mechanism that will seek to prevent the misuse and abuse of power by police. By controlling such concept, the process becomes objective, justified, fair and equal.The last part of the paper seeks to showcase several approaches in creating a fair avenue for police discretion while at the same time ad dressing the individual needs of citizens as far as safety and security is concerned. One important realization is that police will continue to use discretion. (Kelling, 1999, p. 38). But in this setup, instead of creating an avenue for unjust and subjective interpretations, the manner in which it shall be applied should be dependent on a basis; laws and regulations in a particular state.Doing such actions can help enhance and prevent the process of bias and prejudice in apprehending alleged violators. Another vital criterion that can be exhausted in the process is the creation of rules and standards on as to how police practice discretion. Such feat may prove to be difficult in nature due to its relatively varied and diverse situations; however by making standards and rules, there can be a synchronized way of facilitating and improving the practice of discretion. It is a practice that is characterized as fair and equal treatment among different people.Moreover, there needs to be co ntinued training and development among police officers concerning amendments and changes in laws. Being familiar with such tenets can help prevent the occurrence of abuse and misuse of power. By actively cooperating among the citizenry and the academy, policemen/women can have a fair advantage and at the same time understanding within the community. (Kelling, 1999, p. 41). Accountability is the one often undermined and stepped on when police misuse their discretion.That is why, there needs to be a constant effort to enhance accountability while preserving the ability of the police to practice discretion. There needs to be an establishment of â€Å"accountability standards that identify competent and/or excellent performance violations of organizational rules, and incompetent and uncaring work, including performance with organizational rules† (Kelling, 1999, p. 38). Conclusions Indeed police discretion poses both positive and negative consequences in the community and society. On a high note, its importance in the practice of enforcement can clearly be seen. However, due to its uncontrolled state, it often leads to abuse and misuse among members of the police force. In the end, there is a need to control the practice of police discretion by placing and putting accountability and other important standards that can help prevent bias and subjectivity. In the end, after all such efforts had been made it still boils down to one common theme; the protection and maintenance of security among member of the community and society.

Entrepreneurship. What Have I Learned During The Program And How Can I Essay

Entrepreneurship. What Have I Learned During The Program And How Can I Apply This In My Future Career A Critical Reflection - Essay Example Alongside the development of marketing theory, other parallel streams such as commodity, functional and institutional also experienced tremendous development. The rapid evolution, that took place just after the Second World War further escalated in the 1960s. This time the thrust was mainly on organizational behaviour, behavioural sciences and operational management which also strongly impacted the theories of marketing. The concept of entrepreneurship also evolved during this phase and some of the scholars even deem the evolution of entrepreneurial discipline to be analogous with the theories of marketing (Hultman and Shaw, 2003). It all started with the definition of entrepreneurship provided by Richard Cantillion in the 18th century, where he mentioned an entrepreneur to be an innovator. With the course of time, several other practitioners have portrayed their perception and outlooks about the notion of entrepreneurship. Schumpeter (1934) â€Å"entrepreneur as innovator†, S ay (1845) â€Å"entrepreneur as coordinator†, Kirzner (1973) â€Å"entrepreneur as arbitrator and opportunity-seeker† and Knight (1921) â€Å"entrepreneur as uncertainty reducer† are some of the excerpt of the thoughts presented by the eminent scholars. However, currently the concept of entrepreneurship is widely accepted and is judged as a vital part of the contemporary world and a well established erudite discipline. Moreover, government of a number of countries also judges entrepreneurship as a mantra of success and development of the economy. A number of examples can be traced which prominently showcases, the significant contribution made by entrepreneurs to the economy of a country. The importance increases exponentially when it comes to a developing country (Hills and Hultman, 2011). According to Rae (2007, p.3) an entrepreneur is defined as a person who acts in an enterprising way, and who identifies or creates and acts on an opportunity, for example by s tarting a new business venture. On the other hand, entrepreneurship is defined as a subject of enterprise and entrepreneurs, encompassing the practical and academic knowledge, skills and techniques used in being an entrepreneur. In regards to this context, Lumpkin and Dess (1996) put emphasis on the fact that an entrepreneur can be best judged by comparing the five dimensions namely (1) risk-taking; (2) opportunity oriented; (3) innovativeness; (4) pro-activeness; and (5) autonomy. An average or more than the standard score in these five dimensions greatly augments the possibility of an individual to become an entrepreneur in the near future (Mohanty, 2005; Hills, Hultman, Kraus and Schulte, 2010; Hultman, 1999; Carson, Cromie, McGowan and Hill, 1995). This study is basically intended to critically reflect upon the learning I received from the teachers and trainers. In the course module, we have mainly read about the theories and importance of entrepreneurship and critical evaluatio n of what I have learned during the programme and how can I apply this in my future career. In order to do this analysis, self reflection methodology will be adopted. In this study, I will portray about what I have learned during the entire course and will reflect upon how I can use those learning for my professional career. In this study, I will also develop a career action plan to showcase my future personal development. Self Reflection of Academic and Professional Learning I always have high interest on computers since my childhood days. However, at that time I was completely unaware of the architecture of a computer. In addition, I was also unaware of the strong research and development activities that took place prior to the development of computers;

Taxation Law Practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Taxation Law Practice - Essay Example In Australia, income taxes are increasingly imposed with higher income earners paying a higher percentage than lower income earners (ATO, 2007) Where income is earned in the form of capital gains on prescribed assets, only half of the gain is measurable for Capital Gains Tax (CGT) purposes if it was held for at least 12 months. If the assets were held for less than 12 months, then it is fully measurable for CGT purposes. A person's principal place of residence however is exempt from CGT. Where income is earned in the form of capital gains on prescribed assets, only half of the gain is assessable for Capital Gains Tax (CGT) purposes if it was held for at least 12 months. If the assets were held for less than 12 months, then it is fully assessable for CGT purposes. A person's principal place of residence however is exempt from CGT. Medicare (National Health Insurance) is charged at a flat 1.5% rate. If you earn more than 50,000 and do not have private health insurance you are liable for an extra 1% of your taxable income. This extra charge is known as the Medicare Levy Surcharge. Companies and corporations pay tax on profits. Not just like personal income taxes which use a progressive range, corporate taxes in Australia are calculated at a flat 30% rate. Tax is paid on corporate income at the corporate range before it is distributed to individual shareholders as dividends. A tax credit called a franking credit is provided to individuals who receive dividends to reflect the tax already paid at the corporate level a process known as dividend imputation (ATO, 2007). GOODS AND SERVICES TAXES The Federal Government levies a multi-stage tax of 10% on the supply of most and services by entities registered for Goods and Services Tax (GST). There are lots of supplies which are GST-free just like many basic foodstuffs, medical and educational services, exports; input-taxed like residential accommodation, financial services; exempt similar to Government charges; or outside the scope of GST. The profit from this tax is disseminated to the States. State governments do not charge any sales taxes though they do impose stamp duties on a series of transactions (ATO, 2007). PROPERTY TAXES Local governments are typically funded largely by property taxes on residential, industrial and commercial properties. Aside from that, some state governments charge tax on land values for investors and primary residences of high value. The state governments also charge taxes on the transfer of property title and the registration of commercial leases. Fire Service Charges are also frequently applied to domestic house insurance and business insurance contracts. These charges are required under State Government law to assist in funding the fire services in each State (ATO, 2007). EXCISE TAXES Both the federal and state governments require excise

Qualititive method, focus group Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Qualititive method, focus group - Research Paper Example And help researchers of any field or company to get an insight of human attitudes (Kitzinger, 1995). Researchers have found that the investigation made in this method, is unique from other research methods, as the question asked are not technical but conceptual. This allows an individual to put forward one’s concept and contribute equally in the research (Devers, 1999, p.1155-1156). The focus group research method is one of the types of the qualitative method which has gained significant popularity in the new businesses, helping them collect data about their company’s standards and internal issues more effectively (Gibbs, 1997, p.5-7). A simple definition of a focus group method given by David L. Morgan (1996) states that the focus group tends to look into the concepts and believes, forming human attitudes and norms (Morgan, Focus Groups, 1996, p .129). Unlike, the brainstorming method of researching, where everyone just raise their point, the focus group centers around one main topic and encourages people to give their responses on that topic. The group of people is chosen such that they do not differ from each other much, in their status, class or education, so they can be open in sharing their knowledge and experiences (Packer, Race, & Hotch, 1994, p.1-3). The focus group method has benefited largely in the field of academic literature, making easier for researchers and writers to get an insight of one’s life. Often a simple questionnaire is design to give an idea about the objective of the research to the participants. And to dilute a complicated topic, to make the participants comprehend and respond easily (Gibbs, 1997, p.5-7). Initially, this method was used in the field of social sciences, as a tool to define human attitudes and psyche, but by the passage of time it earned vast acceptance in the field of medical research. The reason lies in the flexibility of the method, in dealing with any kind of issue equally well

Racial and Ethnic Diversity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Racial and Ethnic Diversity - Essay Example is rise in diversity so much of a problem This is an imperative question, for by viewing growth in racial and cultural diversity as a problem, policy makers, educators, and journalists, have set the stage for how societies will respond to this change. This does not mean that a change in the ethnic and racial structure of a school or community does not throw up new challenges or necessitate a change in approach as regards the part of educators. New immigrants palpably speak languages other than English, and in several California school districts, it is not unusual for over 40 foreign languages to be there among the student population. The arrival of racial minorities time and again leads to racial clashes and the venting of several kinds of bias and intolerance. Those receiving the new arrivals feel endangered and apprehensive and counter with antagonism and resentment. Finally, and most significantly, diversity is deemed as problematic because American schools have traditionally seen cultural incorporation of immigrants and non-whites as essential to their mission. One of the biggest concerns of politicians and educators during the nineteenth century was how new immigrants would be integrated into the American mainstream. Public schools were often considered the most rational place where task of converting foreigners into Americans could be executed. Still, "Americanization" was not restricted to foreigners. In the southwest it was routine for Native American children to be separated form their families and sent to boarding schools. The point was to convert them into Christians. As far as African American and many Mexican American children were concerned, segregated schooling actually saved them from being subjected to... According to the report findings diversity is deemed as problematic because American schools have traditionally seen cultural incorporation of immigrants and non-whites as essential to their mission. One of the biggest concerns of politicians and educators during the nineteenth century was how new immigrants would be integrated into the American mainstream. Public schools were often considered the most rational place where task of converting foreigners into Americans could be executed. As the paper declares today de-segregation has changed that too. As a consequence, the spoken language of children – be it Ebonics or Spanish - has frequently been subject to eradication. In addition, the cultural variations of these children are associated with cultural inferiority far too often, and not unpredictably, children from these groups are likely to fare poorly in school, get into serious trouble, or for that matter even drop out. Given America’s history, and given the authentic challenges that escort an increase in diversity, several educators and communities would treat this as a problem. Small towns and rural areas are showing that diversity is the country’s future and there is a concerted effort being shown in fostering diversity in the years to come. There is another option. Instead of reacting to rising diversity with apprehension and insecurity, it is feasible to treat diversity as an asset and work out ways of responding to it which facilitate the society to reap benefits from this pluralism.

Human Rights Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Human Rights - Essay Example licies, restrictions on its rent and sale that protected the source of income of rural corn and coffee raising by the indigenous people of Chiapas in order to comply with the requirement of the said agreement. By imposing these policies, the indigenous community started questioning their human rights because they found it unjust which led to an armed combat with the Mexican army in 1994. Exploiting the growing conflict between the government and interests of the indigenous people, entered the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) a revolutionary group who sided with the indigenous people and who fought war with the Mexican army in 1994 as their means of showing resistance to the state law in Chiapas. After the ceasefire and negotiation for two years, the Mexican State and the EZLN signed the San Andres accord for indigenous rights and culture that allowed some freedom in their governance and construction of legality for the indigenous people of Chiapas. But this accord didnâ⠂¬â„¢t stop the conflict between the Mexican government and the EZLN because the Mexican government failed to fully complete its provisions. Instead, the Mexican government and the local mestizo economic and landowner elites known as the â€Å"Coletos† counteracted the human rights claimed by the indigenous people and EZLN, claiming that the collective rights of the indigenous people and ELZN interfered with their personal liberties and rights as property owners. These rights that were claimed by the Mexican government and the Coletos prevented the indigenous people and the ELZN to establish their political autonomy and agricultural landholding collectives. This is a form of cultural imperialism because the Mexican government used their authority over the indigenous people on changing the states law and policies still for the benefit of the regime and elites. The regime and the elites will profit so much on the North American Free Trade Agreement in 1992 because the policies that was amended

Longitudinal study vs survey methods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Longitudinal study vs survey methods - Essay Example This kind of a study is special in its nature in that the researcher is not required to interfere with the subjects of the study but, is required to use the same subjects in the conduct of the several phases of the study. Thus, a longitudinal study can establish a sequence of research events during its conduct. This form of study is very beneficial to a researcher in the sense that one is able to detect the changes or developments in the characteristics of the test subjects (sample population) either at the individual levels or at the group level. 1. Hutto, C.J., Yardi, S., & Gilbert. E., (2013). A Longitudinal Study of Follow Predictors on Twitter. CHI , 1-10. 2. Rajulton, F. (2001). The Fundamentals of Longitudinal Research: An Overview. Special Issue on Longitudinal Methodology, Canadian Studies in Population , Vol. 28 (2), 169-185. 3. Diamond, L. M. (2008). Female Bisexuality From Adolescence to Adulthood: Results From a 10-Year Longitudinal Study. Developmental Psychology , Vol. 44 (1), 5-14. 4. Huesmann, L. R., Moise-Titus, J., Podolski, C-L., Eron, L. D., (2003). Longitudinal Relations Between Children’s Exposure to TV Violence and Their Aggressive and Violent Behavior in Young Adulthood: 1977–1992. Developmental Psychology , Vol. 39 (2), 201-221. 5. Farrall, S. (2007). ... The chart below shows a summary of the benefits and challenges faced by this research method as shall be discussed later in the essay. PART 3 Survey method is a research method that studies individual units that have been sampled from the main population as well as the techniques of the data collection used in the survey such as the construction of the questionnaires. Consequently, a survey research method would look into the accuracy of the survey responses as well as the methods that can be used to improve their number. In most cases, the researcher undertakes the surveys so as to be able to make statistical inferences regarding the population under study (Zikmund, 2013). The chart below shows a summary of the benefits and challenges faced by this research method as shall be discussed later in the essay. PART 4 Longitudinal Research Method Survey Research Method Refers to an observational study that is conducted upon the same subjects or sample through the gathering of data repeate dly over a period of time. This period of time may extend to even one year or beyond like a decade Refers to a research method that studies individual units that have been sampled from the main population as well as the techniques of the data collection used in the survey such as the construction of the questionnaires. Benefits Challenges Benefits Challenges 1. It does allow the researchers to easily identify any changes or developments that may occur in the characteristics of the target or sample population both at the individual and group levels. 1. The observations by definition are not independent. As such the study must always account for the data dependency. 1. It is relatively easy to develop and to administer especially when using advanced survey

School Resources Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

School Resources - Essay Example Lastly, the comparisons for the required staff, allotted staff and desired staff were also provided. School Resources Introduction The aim of schools at Newton County in Georgia State is to offer learning excellence to every child. Georgia State ensures that every occupant is entitled to enhanced education since better education is the right for every inhabitant. Therefore, for the state government to fulfill this aspect, it ensures that students receive better education across the state. This is through deploying teachers with effective education skills and offering them, better incentives to enable them deliver effective services. Every state constitution ensures that every citizen has the right to education; thus, the states play significant roles in ensuring that there are fair and equitable financial resources vital for enabling teachers to deliver effective services to students (LexiNexis, 2013). The financial resources, which is available in every state has two parts including the revenue and the expenditure sides. Funds have been on increase and many fundraisers have been dedicated to varied schools in order to make education work better for all citizens. Financial Resources State The financial resources of the school will include the revenue and expenditure since these accounts for the significant part of the state money. The funding revenue taxes are produced by the states and these are allocated for varied activities at the local schools. For instance, the high school local 5 mills are 197, 117, 287 and this indicates that 1 mill is worthy 39423457.4 dollars (Barge, 2013). These accounts for the total funds generated to meet the total expenses, which is often not funded by the federal or state government. Newton district received state funds of about $ 10, 009,047 for learning purposes in the current year (GaDOE, 2013). The QBE (Quality Basic Education), which is salary and operating cost for high school grade 9-12, is $ 11, 390,203. The FTE (full-ti me equivalent) is approximated 3, 741; thus a teacher teaching in high school will earn approximately $2,744. 80 (Barge, 2013). Federal The federal funding for schools in the current year is $ 1, 814, 00 to Newton County and direct transfer for federal revenue is $ 91. 000 (Barge, 2013). The federal government transfer of income, which is provided to the Georgia state, can be categorized in varied ways. The child nutrition act is estimated at $ 580, 000, safe and drug fee to schools is $ 8.000, children with disabilities act is $ 360, 000, vocational and technological education is $ 35,000 and other federal funding is estimated at $ 238,000. The federal government to enable the local schools to meet the needs of students with disabilities meets more than 5 percent of funds for locals; these funds are generated form tax collections and the QBE act makes the decisions about the funding. Therefore, the local system should provide FTE enrollment of students in order to enable the federa l government deliver the state funding effectively. This is because the state funding relies heavily on full-time equivalent report. Therefore, it is necessary for a student in Newton County to report in class at least for ten to fifteen days before the FTE report is taken. This is vital because the funding available for every

Control by Heat and UV Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Control by Heat and UV - Lab Report Example Some bacteria though have developed adaptive measures to sustain high-temperature exposures, for example, T. aquaticus that is used in PCR. Psychrophiles are those that require low temperatures of less than 20⠁ °C while mesophiles require 20-40⠁ °C. Thermophiles, on the other hand, require high temperatures of above 40⠁ °C to survive. Most bacteria that infect human are mesophiles and grow optimally at 35-37⠁ °C. Bacteria that have endospores are more likely to survive extreme environmental conditions such as high temperature and high UV irradiation (Prescott, John and Donald, 54) Three TSA plates were acquired and labeled with a name, lab time, and temperature. Each was divided into three sections. Each section was marked with the abbreviation of the test organisms. A single streak (about 1cm) of each organism was made on its respective section. They were incubated at temperatures of 35⠁ °C incubator, Room temperature (or 25⠁ °C incubator) and Refrigerator (~10⠁ °C). Four TSA plates were acquired for each bacterium. Each was labeled with the name, lab time and the organism name. The plates were then divided into half each and labeled control and UV on each side. A sterile swab was inoculated into the culture. Three zigzag lines were made on the agar surface at 45 degrees to each other. The plates were exposed to UltraViolet light for 3 minutes before incubation at 35⠁ °C for 48 hours. Four Trypticase Soy Broth tubes were labeled with name, lab time, organism and time. Each tube was inoculated with the appropriate organism. Each student in the team exposed the organism to different temperature of 40⠁ °C, 55⠁ °C, 80⠁ °C and ~100⠁ °C. Each organism was exposed to heat for a given length of time, that is, 10, 20, 30 and 40 minutes. The tubes were vortexed after every 10 minutes. After the appropriate length of time, the tubes were dried and incubated at 35 °C for 48 hours. The four types of bacteria exhibited different responses to

Stakeholder Analysis- Fracking Essay Example for Free

Stakeholder Analysis- Fracking Essay Pursuing hydraulic fracturing as a top manager of Chevron, I will describe the dilemmas that are associated with fracking. The first problem with this procedure is finding the appropriate land and leasing it from the landowners. With talk around the country, it can be difficult finding land because of landowners’ personal experience with the practice of hydraulic fracturing. In southwestern Pennsylvania there have been cases of animal birth defects, faucet erosion, stomach pains, and other health issues; in response, according to the New York Times, â€Å"Range Resources maintains that a D. E.P. study from 2010 indicates no air pollution of any kind† (Griswold, 2011). The country is torn in the middle of believing in natural gases and not believing. According to Huffington Post, â€Å"A report that the Congressional Research Service, which provides policy and legal analysis to the U.S. Congress, published in November also seems to support the industry’s sales pitch: ‘Given existing data, most indications point to the changes in the natural gas industry as positive to the overall U.S. economy’ (Peeples, 2013) but there are still skeptics. The issue that my company is facing in expanding the operations within this industry is, mainly, the uncertainty of the long term effects the fracking procedure is possibly contributing to. According to msnbc, â€Å"fracking is causing earthquakes. Federal scientists presented a new study this week to the American Geophysical Union that suggests natural gas drilling is the likely culprit behind a skyrocketing number of earthquakes in the Raton Basin in Colorado and New Mexico†¦ companies began injecting what’s called ‘wastewater fluid’ from natural gas drilling into the Earth† ( Gentile, 2012). Different publications are distributing articles of studies of health effects and environmental issues that hydraulic fracturing are causing. This in response is effecting the possible growth for Chevron. My team is conducting a stakeholder analysis and we have determined several stakeholders which include: the government, D.E.P., media, owners, shareholders, environmentalists, general public. Also established are the interests of each stakeholder. With the general public interests being in their health, voting is one power they could use to voice their concerns. Environmentalists and the D.E.P. are interested in the pollution fracking is causing and the D.E.P. could use their legal power to help regulate the pollution. The concerns of the shareholders are the profits of the company and voting is their power they could use to fix problems within the organization. With the power of economics, the owners are interested in the success of the company. The media is concerned with the public knowing both sides of the issue. Lastly, one main interest in the government is the reconstructing of the economy and what hydraulic fracturing could create in jobs. The stakeholders that are most likely to resonate with the public are the general public, media, and the environmentalists. With media producing stories of the public being affected by the pollution and the environmentalists undergoing studies on the environment, this could create a negative image on fracking companies. Considering all the stakeholders, the one stakeholder that holds the most urgency is the general public that is being affected. The general public is the most urgent because they are being victimized and their voices are being heard throughout the country which is causing confrontational issues. Different coalitions could be formed by the environmentalists and the government. Different politicians could lobby to get a bill pass and environmentalists could form to fight bills. My recommendation for the company’s consideration is to invest in more resource of the different affects fracking is causing and to fix the environmental issues that are caused. Ideally, Chevron should follow the triple bottom line perspective because all three elements (planet, profit, and people) are strongly involved. But with the uncertainty of the new procedures and all the different effects, the stakeholder approach is more realistic for Chevron. Chevron could prioritize their stakeholders and focus on each of their needs. This company holds ethical responsibility to the general public because of the health hazards that are surrounding the drill sites. The legal responsibility the company has is to follow the regulations that are formed by the D.E.P. Works Cited 1.) Grizwold, E. (2013). The Fracturing of Pennsylvania. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/20/magazine/fracking-amwell-township.html?pagewanted=all_r=1 2.) Gentile, S. (2012). Fracking is transforming our energy economy- but its also causing earthquakes. http://tv.msnbc.com/2012/12/08/fracking-transformed-our-energy-economy-but-its-also-causing-earthquakes/ 3.) Peeples, L. (2013). Fracking in Pennsylvania Sets Up Dilemma For Locals: Quick Money Or Long Term Health Concerns. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/25/fracking-pennsylvania-natural-gas-lease-landman_n_2546824.html?ir=greenutm_campaign=012513utm_medium=emailutm_source=Alert-greenutm_content=FullStory

Fast food nation Essay Example for Free

Fast food nation Essay Let’s be real, the idea of choosing fast food is an attractive option. The ease of driving to a pick-up window to grab a delicious meal for a few dollars in under a couple of minutes is so hard to resist. I mean, who wants to drive to the grocery store to buy ingredients that cost more than an item on the value menu? Who wants to prepare and spend time cooking when you could just wait a few minutes to have someone make you food? Worst of all, who wants to clean up after the mess you made so you can repeat the cycle over again? I could see why many Americans choose such an appealing option. On the other hand, it appears that there are numerous consequences that people are too blind to notice. The entire experience about eating food among friends and families had been replaced by a rushed bite. It is to the point where people view fast food as an essential part of their habitual life. This leads to many problems like health and economic issues. America may have evolved into a fast food nation, or really a fat food nation. To this day, it seems that fast food is the â€Å"go-to† option because of its convenience, tastiness, and practicality. Unfortunately, the entire experience of eating food has transformed into a â€Å"routine†¦that is now taken for granted† (Schlosser 3). I agree with Schlosser because many people disregard the traditions that food brings to the table. Friends and families come together to eat food and enjoy each other’s company. Yet people overlook it and choose to finish their food within minutes with no words exchanged to continue what they were doing before. I think that one of the main reasons is how fast paced our country has become, and how our eating habits have sped up. Families have changed the way they eat as the years have progressed. Before, it was considered that â€Å"housewives would have a home-cooked meal ready for their husband and kids† (guest speaker, 11/20) when they arrived home. They would eat together and have conversations about anything on their minds. Those times have gradually dissolved when the workforce required wives to take on occupations. As of now, everyone is recommended to secure a job, thus are too busy to cook all the time for their families. The last thing a working mother wants to do when she comes home from an exhausting day of work is to prepare a troublesome meal for the family that is scarfed in seconds. So how do they find a way to overcome their problems? They decide to drive to a bulding that serves a warm, tasty meal to bring back to their families just to satisfy their hunger to move on with their lives. A different scenario is where students are always rushed with jam-packed schedules filled with academics, sports, and extra-curricular interests. Many students do not have the spare time to cook meals in between their busy lives. On top of that, students’ energy levels tend to be depleted at the end of the day. Cooking takes too much time and energy, or even thinking of what to make. This leads to the next convenient option: drive-thru restaurants. Nowadays, the essentialism of fast food has taken over in numerous American lives. Those with active agendas may view such fast food as â€Å"something as having universal validity rather than as being a social, ideological, or intellectual construct† (Rossiter 11/13) for practical reasons. Today’s hurried pace does not allow people the opportunity to eat leisurely with the company of others. Rather, the replacement of traditional food to fast food is the result of an intense schedule of work and school. When fast food first appeared on the planet, there was a huge economic boom after World War II. Since fast food made a successful mark in history, â€Å"fast food was added to the Merriam- Webster dictionary in 1951. † (Sena). As time progressed, there is no doubt that fast food is loved by not only Americans, but everyone globally. Modern society is always on the go, so grabbing a quick bite is always on demand. With that in mind, the rising of prices, due to economic recession, have changed the perception of many fast food owners. So how do they approach this obstacle? It seems as though fast food franchises have focused on â€Å"high volume, low cost and high speed product† (Sena). In this day and age, many people â€Å"work for wages and use wages to pay for food† (Rossiter 9/4). Due to recession, there are many working class citizens who do spend their money on fast food because that is all they could afford. It is unfortunate because people are being diagnosed with many health problems since they lack the money to buy healthier products. Speaking of which, I think it is quite ironic that a cheeseburger costs just as much as broccoli. Is it not ridiculous that healthy foods cost a lot more than value meals at restaurants? I never grasped that idea and I think that healthy foods should be cheaper than unhealthy junk food. If major fast food corporations drop the prices of healthier foods such as chicken wraps and grilled chicken salads with less fattening dressing and increase prices for the burgers and fries, health problems would be less of a concern. People would be able to eat a standard meal for an affordable price. Furthermore, if people ate healthier food, they would have more energy to be more productive in their jobs. Maybe if fast food restaurants changed their items to healthier alternatives, such issues could be less of a concern. It is hard for me to say if the book effectively conveyed the messages that Eric Schlosser wanted to share because there could have been more evidence throughout the rest of the book. Fast Food Nation was great to read about the history of how the founders lived and how fast food shaped America. Since I grew up in Los Angeles, near Anaheim, it shocked me how that Carl Karcher described the city that had â€Å"palm trees and orange groves, and smelled the citrus in the air† (Schlosser 13). If I had to describe Anaheim, I would think about the convention center, the Angel’s Stadium and of course, Disneyland; yes, this theme park is the â€Å"happiest place on Earth†, but not really like â€Å"heaven† (Schlosser 13). I found it quite interesting how fast food became a huge success after the invention of cars came up. It never crossed my mind that the creation of drive-in restaurants became such a great hit and helped the economy out incredibly. I also found this book interesting because of automobiles, this led to â€Å"the world’s first motel and the first drive-in bank. † (Schlosser 17). Due to that, food stands introduced â€Å"curb service† which seemed like drive-ins became acceptable year-long. I had no idea that the McDonald brothers were the ones to start the Speedee Service System, thus starting the fast food nation. Nor did I know that they â€Å"employed only young men† (Schlosser 20) and that attracted families rather than hiring women which attracted teenage boys. What interested me the most was that young employed men attracted families rather than teenage girls. If employed women attracted boys, it would only make sense that employed men attracted females. However, within the required pages of the book, I would say that the Schlosser could have done a better job to convey his messages. In the introduction, he stated his thoughts about how fast food affected America and how he would approach his thoughts. However, the first chapter went off topic and gave the audience a better understanding of the founding fathers of the biggest fast food joints in the world. I think that he should have referred to the impacts that fast food had on people. There was not much information about how fat food influenced the traditions of food or what happens behind the cash register. He did say a little bit about the economic trends and how the Speedee Service System allowed more families from the working- class background could afford their products. I was hoping Schlosser would talk more about traditions and experiences about food and how it evolved today. I believe that he could have stated more evidence on how fast food impacted the lives of America in the present and cut out a lot of history. Sure, the information from the past helped me understand what was going on, but rather talking about the lives of the founders, more information about what was really inside the food behind the counters could have helped Schlosser’s message. When I heard about this book, I assumed he would talk about how each item on the fast food menus were really created. I was looking forward to read about new ingredients that were injected and what livestock was raised and used to make the burgers. Also, Schlosser could have mentioned his opinions on solutions to these problems. By stating a few possible answers, he could have touched some reader’s hearts enough to make changes in their lives. It could have even helped society think twice about stuffing a Big Mac or Double-Double in their mouths. On top of that, I anticipated something similar to the documentary â€Å"Super Size Me† in the sense that Schlosser would have conducted an experiment to shock his readers. Something like Morgan Spurlock’s social experiment would have opened my eyes even more about fast food and â€Å"the issue of rising of†¦corporate social responsibility. † (Riley). By throwing in some appalling facts, it would have been more effective to the readers. Perhaps Schlosser could have one person eat any kind of fast food for a month and see if any drastic changes occurred. At the end of the day, I think it is up to the consumers to choose if they want to eat French fries or not. They are the ones to decide if they should consume a Wendy’s triple stacker burger and know the consequences. America has more options than fast food, there are easy recipes to cook, make food in advance if a schedule is too busy, or buy in bulk to save money. Eric Schlosser may have enlightened his audience throughout the rest of the book, but he can only do so much to influence his readers. Works Cited Riley, Jim. CSR at the Movies Supersize Me in 7 Minutes. Tutor2u. Tutor2u Limited, 20 Feb. 2011. http://www. tutor2u. net/blog/index. php/business-studies/comments/csr-at-the-movies-supersize-me-in-7-minutes Rossiter, Jaime. Food Nationalism/Ethnicity. Essentialism. San Diego State University, San Diego. 1 Dec. 2013. Lecture. Rossiter, Jaime. Global Food Regime. Geography of Food. San Diego State University, San Diego. 25 Nov. 2013. Lecture. Schlosser, Eric. Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001. Sena, Matt. Fast Food Industry Analysis 2013 – Cost Trends. Fast Food Industry Analysis 2013. FranchiseHelp Holdings LLC, n. d. Web. 28 Nov. 2013. http://www. franchisehelp. com/industry- reports/fast-food-industry-report.

What Do You Mean By Hash Information Technology Essay

What Do You Mean By Hash Information Technology Essay A hash also called a digest, and informally a checksum is a kind of signature for a stream of data that represents the contents.  The closest real-life analog we can think is a tamper-evident seal on a software package: if you open the box (change the file), its detected. A  cryptographic hash function  is a  deterministic procedure  that takes an arbitrary block of  data  and returns a fixed-size  bit string, the (cryptographic)  hash value, such that an accidental or intentional change to the data will change the hash value. The data to be encoded is often called the message, and the hash values are sometimes called the  message digest  or simply digest. The ideal cryptographic hash function has four main or significant properties: It is easy to compute the hash value for any given message, It is  infeasible  to find a message that has a given hash, It is infeasible to modify a message without changing its hash, It is infeasible to find two different messages with the same hash. Cryptographic hash functions have many  information security  applications, notably in  digital signatures,  message authentication codes  (MACs), and other forms of  authentication. They can also be used as ordinary  hash functions, to index data in  hash tables, for  fingerprinting, to detect duplicate data or uniquely identify files, and as  checksums  to detect accidental data corruption. Indeed, in information security contexts, cryptographic hash values are sometimes called (digital) fingerprints,  checksums, or just  hash values, even though all these terms stand for functions with rather different properties and purposes. Q2. What are the principal elements of a public-key cryptosystem? Ans2. Public-Key Cryptosystems: Secrecy and Authentication, illustrates the essential elements of a public-key encryption scheme. Public key cryptography is an asymmetric scheme that uses a  pair  of keys for encryption: a  public key,  which encrypts data, and a corresponding  private,  or  secret key  for decryption. You publish your public key to the world while keeping your private key secret. Anyone with a copy of your public key can then encrypt information that only you can read. Even people you have never met. Plaintext: This is the original message or data fed into the algorithm as input. Encryption Algorithm: It performs various substitutions and transformation on plaintext. Secret Key: It is used for encryption. Ciphertext: This is the scrambled message produced as output. Decryption Algorithm: This is the encryption algorithm run in reverse. Q3. What types of information might be derived from a traffic analysis attack? Ans3. In a connection-oriented application, the frequency and duration could be determined. In either a connection-oriented or connectionless environment, the number and length of messages between parties could be determined. Traffic analysis attacks aim to derive critical information by analyzing traffic over a network. The two classes of traffic analysis attacks: link-load analysis attacks and flow-connectivity analysis attacks.   Countermeasures for such attacks are usually realized by properly padding the payload traffic so that the statistics of the overall traffic become significantly different from that of the payload traffic. Two basic countermeasure strategies are (a) to pad the traffic with constant inter-arrival times of packets (CIT) or (b) to pad the traffic with variable inter-arrival times (VIT).   Q4. What are three broad categories of applications of public-key cryptosystems? What requirements must a public key cryptosystems fulfill to be a secure algorithm? Ans4. Public-key systems are characterized by the use of a cryptographic type of algorithm with two keys. Depending on the application, the sender uses either the senders private key or the receivers public key, or both, to perform some type of cryptographic function. In broad terms, we can classify the use of public-key cryptosystems into the three categories: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Encryption/decryption: The sender encrypts a message with the recipients public key. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Digital signature: The sender signs a message with its private key, either to the whole message or to a small block of data that is a function of the message. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Key exchange: Two sides cooperate to exchange a session key. Several different approaches are possible, involving the private key(s) of one or both parties. Some algorithms are suitable for all three applications, whereas others can be used only for one or two of these applications. Public key schemes are no more or less secure than private key schemes in both cases the size of the key determines the security. But with public key schemes at least there is usually a firmer theoretical basis for determining the security since its based on well-known and well studied number theory problems. In order to solve the key management problem, the concept of public-key cryptography was introduced. Public-key cryptosystems have two primary uses, encryption and digital signatures. In their system, each person gets a pair of keys, one called the public key and the other called the private key. The public key is published, while the private key is kept secret. The need for the sender and receiver to share secret information is eliminated; all communications involve only public keys, and no private key is ever transmitted or shared. In this system, it is no longer necessary to trust the security of some means of communications. The only requirement is that public keys be associated with their users in a trusted (authenticated) manner (for instance, in a trusted directory). Anyone can send a confidential message by just using public information, but the message can only be decrypted with a private key, which is in the sole possession of the intended recipient. Furthermore, public-key cryptography can be used not only for privacy (encryption), but also for authentication (digital signatures) and other various techniques. Q5. What is digital signature standard? Ans5. This Standard specifies a suite of algorithms that can be used to generate a digital signature. Digital signatures are used to detect unauthorized modifications to data and to authenticate the identity of the signatory. In addition, the recipient of signed data can use a digital signature as evidence in demonstrating to a third party that the signature was, in fact, generated by the claimed signatory. This is known as non-repudiation, since the signatory cannot easily repudiate the signature at a later time. This Standard specifies algorithms for applications requiring a digital signature, rather than a written signature. A digital signature is represented in a computer as a string of bits. A digital signature is computed using a set of rules and a set of parameters that allow the identity of the signatory and the integrity of the data to be verified. Digital signatures may be generated on both stored and transmitted data. Signature generation uses a private key to generate a digital signature; signature verification uses a public key that corresponds to, but is not the same as, the private key. Each signatory possesses a private and public key pair. Public keys may be known by the public; private keys are kept secret. Anyone can verify the signature by employing the signatorys public key. Only the user that possesses the private key can perform signature generation. A hash function is used in the signature generation process to obtain a condensed version of the data to be signed; the condensed version of the data is often called a message digest. The message digest is input to the digital signature algorithm to generate the digital signature. The digital signature is provided to the intended verifier along with the signed data. The verifying entity verifies the signature by using the claimed signatorys public key and the same hash function that was used to generate the signature. Similar procedures may be used to generate and verify signatures for both stored and transmitted data. Q6. Explain authentication function: message encryption, message authentication code and hash function. Ans6. Message encryption: Message encryption is a process that encodes the data of a message so that unauthorized people cannot access it. The process of message encryption converts a message from readable text to scrambled or enciphered text, thus keeping the message content private. Only people who use a private key can read such a message. In fact, message encryption not only safeguards the message but also any attachments included with it. Therefore, message encryption is basically information scrambling, and the technology this process involves is very important for internal security in information technology-driven environments. When message encryption is properly used in such an environment, it helps establish a secure communication channel even in cases where the fundamental system and network infrastructure is not very secure. It is obvious that message encryption is of great significance when a message needs to be transferred through shared systems or network segments in which a number of people may otherwise be able to view it. Message encryption is an invaluable tool in situations where sensitive information needs to be safeguarded so that it cannot be seen or modified by other parties. Message authentication code: One of the reasons that encryption mechanism does not provide a good solution for message authentication is that it is difficult for the receiver to identify the legitimate plaintext. To address this problem, we can apply an error detection code to the message so that only legitimate plaintext can pass the error detection. Such error detection codes are used in the network communication to provide data integrity verification against bit errors introduced by communication channel noise. But it can not provide data integrity protection against malicious attackers. In light of error detection code, we can design a code that uses a secret key. Without the key, modifying the message in a way that it matches the code is impossible. This idea leads to the design of message authentication code (MAC). A MAC  algorithm, sometimes called a  keyed  (cryptographic)  hash function, accepts as input a  secret key  and an arbitrary-length message to be authenticated, and outputs a MAC (sometimes known as a  tag). The MAC value protects both a messages  data integrity  as well as its  authenticity, by allowing verifiers (who also possess the secret key) to detect any changes to the message content. Hash Functions: A hash function H is a transformation that takes a variable-size input m and returns a fixed-size string, which is called the hash value h (that is, h = H(m)). Hash functions with just this property have a variety of general computational uses, but when employed in cryptography the hash functions are usually chosen to have some additional properties. The basic requirements for a cryptographic hash function are: the input can be of any length, the output has a fixed length, H(x) is relatively easy to compute for any given x , H(x) is one-way, H(x) is collision-free. A  hash function  is any  well-defined procedure  or  mathematical function  that converts a large, possibly variable-sized amount of data into a small datum, usually a single  integer  that may serve as an  index  to an  array. The values returned by a hash function are called  hash values, hash codes,  hash sums, or simply  hashes.

The Mother by Gwendolyn Brooks Essay -- My Children Heaven Essays Poet

The Mother by Gwendolyn Brooks "The Mother," by Gwendolyn Brooks, is a sorrowful, distressing poem about a mother who has experienced numerous abortions. While reading the poem, you can feel the pain, heartache, distress and grief she is feeling. She is both remorseful and regretful; nevertheless, she explains that she had no other alternative. It is a sentimental and heart wrenching poem where she talks about not being able to experience or do things with the children that she aborted -- things that people who have children often take for granted. Perhaps this poem is a reflection of what many women in society are feeling. The first stanza begins with a strong statement: "Abortions will not let you forget." It shows the sorrow and distress she is going through, grieving about future experiences (wondering, what might have been?) She says things like: "You will never wind up the sucking-thumb Or scuttle off ghosts that come. You will never leave them, controlling your luscious sigh, Return for a snack of them, with gobbling mother-eye." (7-10) These are a few o... The Mother by Gwendolyn Brooks Essay -- My Children Heaven Essays Poet The Mother by Gwendolyn Brooks "The Mother," by Gwendolyn Brooks, is a sorrowful, distressing poem about a mother who has experienced numerous abortions. While reading the poem, you can feel the pain, heartache, distress and grief she is feeling. She is both remorseful and regretful; nevertheless, she explains that she had no other alternative. It is a sentimental and heart wrenching poem where she talks about not being able to experience or do things with the children that she aborted -- things that people who have children often take for granted. Perhaps this poem is a reflection of what many women in society are feeling. The first stanza begins with a strong statement: "Abortions will not let you forget." It shows the sorrow and distress she is going through, grieving about future experiences (wondering, what might have been?) She says things like: "You will never wind up the sucking-thumb Or scuttle off ghosts that come. You will never leave them, controlling your luscious sigh, Return for a snack of them, with gobbling mother-eye." (7-10) These are a few o...

Point Shaving :: essays research papers

I think that it’s a tragedy to see that many collegiate athletes are involved in gambling situations. It’s hard on the athletes too, because they’re not getting paid to play the game so it’s hard to resist thousands of dollars to only win by a few, in cases on point shaving. When I was watching that movie â€Å"Blue Chips†, which is all about illegal college betting and buying athletes to come to their school, there was a scene involving the coach and the point guard regarding a point shaving incident three years ago. After the student was harassed by the coach he finally confessed saying, â€Å"We won the game, we just didn’t beat the spread. That’s only for those gamblers anyway†. He has a point with what he said but that’s not the point. A lot of young athletes do see point shaving as partaking in an illegal and unlawful event or don’t believe that much in it, morally. So people say that if the college players were getting paid none of this would happen. I don’t know if giving the players a stipend is going end this because unless you’re paying the athletes thousands of dollars a week or a game, the stipend won’t be more than what they’re being offered. I do think that it might help but I’m not sure if that help is going to make a big enough difference. On the same note, if you eliminate spreads, can they be sure that it will make a difference when it comes to gambling. Don’t get me wrong, eliminating the spreads would decrease the amounts of point shaving incidents, but it won’t necessarily stop them. Bookies can make up their own spreads and ask players to shave points regardless of the fact that the spread is not publicized. The bookie has an idea by about how much one team may beat another. I understand that they will probably never â€Å"eliminate collegiate gambling† but they’re t rying to limit and reduce it and I’m all for it too. Unfortunately there is the big issue of the politicians and their campaigning for funds and it’s going to be hard to control that too. I can understand why Congress isn’t closing the Nevada loophole or at least delaying it, but I still don’t agree with it.

Gang Intelligence Methods in Law Enforcement Essay -- essays research

GANG INTELLIGENCE METHODS IN LAW ENFORCEMENT The American headlines of any large city will site killings on street corners, robberies, assaults, intimidation, and drug interaction. While not all-criminal activity is associated with gangs, the 780,000 strong members do account for a large majority of the problems that are plaguing America. There is no one-way to stop gang activity in one single swipe, but through a combination of cooperation, education, and training techniques law enforcement can minimize the gang’s movements and even stop a crime before it is committed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A gang is defined as a group of individuals with the same objective that are bound together by a bond of trust. The majority of gangs are young people, but not every gang member is in his prime. The people that make up a gang are usually trying to achieve something, either money, respect, freedom from the oppression of another gang or law enforcement agency, the need to belong to something greater than themselves, or a combination of any of these. The individual that joins a gang is usually after the same goal that the gang is seeking to obtain.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Different gangs have different characteristics, but all gangs possess at least one: A hierarchy. Whether the gang is a small local crew that never moves out of the neighborhood or a larger well organized team that controls an entire district, there will always be a leader. The leader of the group is the focus of gang-related law enforcement intelligence investigations. Often times the leader of a gang may already be incarcerated, and is still communicating and giving orders from within the walls. The leader is the individual that is usually the strongest member of the group with the most charisma, not necessarily the smartest member of the group or the member that has been in the group the longest.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Membership in a gang does not necessarily mean that the person is uneducated. Some gang members may have positions within the law enforcement communities (Sulc, 65) and some gang members earn college degrees in business, law enforcement, finance, etc. This type of education whether formal or on-the-job will make the gang even stronger. If an individual cannot afford to go to college, this type of scholarship program could be an incentive to stay or join up with ... ...mericans understand that catching criminals and bringing down a gang ring is not an easy task. As long as there is an active show of interaction between law enforcement and the public, than the likelihood of information sharing is always greater.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The gang related activity of America cannot be extinguished overnight, but understanding that the fight against such crime is not an easy task will help win the American people’s support. The average citizen is enraged as well as discouraged by the acts of criminal gang forces, and the majority of Americans stand behind law enforcement already. The only way to put a dent in the criminal gang forces of America is through a combination of cooperation, education, and training techniques. WORKS CITED Lowenthall, M.M. INTELLIGENCE: FROM SECRETS TO POLICY. Washington, DC: CQ Press, 2000. Peterson, M.B. APPLICATIONS IN CRIMINAL ANALYSIS. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1998. Peterson, M.B. INTELLIGENCE 2000: REVISING THE BASIC ELEMENTS. Sacramento, CA: LEIU, 2000. Sulc, L.B. LAW ENFORCEMENT: COUNTER INTELLIGENCE. Shawnee Mission, KS: Varro Press, 1996.

Justice is a theme of all great literature Essay

Justice comes from actions and decisions being balanced, in that when someone does a good thing, they are rewarded, and when they do something bad, they are punished. It is the gods’ primary role to hand out justice and make sure everybody is treated fairly. This theme appears immediately in the Odyssey, as Zeus is considering the story of Aegisthus, who courted Agamemnon’s wife and then killed Agamemnon. Aegisthus was killed for this treacherous act. This story of justice shows us instantly that the Odyssey will be strongly structured around it. â€Å"May all who act as he did share his fate! † says Athene. This shows how openly the gods in the Odyssey despised the works of those who went against the will of the gods. Both Nestor and Menelaus repeat this story of Aegisthus, and as god fearing men, they know how important it is to stay on their right side because they know what happens as a result of an imbalance in terms of justice. The Aeneid opens however and we’re told that the poem is based on the founding of Rome and the main string of ‘justice’ seems to be coming from one scorned goddess, who simply doesn’t want her favourite city to be destroyed. The balance she tries to restore is simply an act of revenge rather than actual justice, and rather than convincing the other gods it’s the right thing to do, she simply bribes Aeolus. Justice is however looked upon a little while later as Venus goes to Jupiter and asks why the Trojans are being made to suffer after doing nothing wrong. Jupiter tells her not to fear as justice will be done and Rome will be founded. Such behaviour seems to recur constantly throughout the Aeneid. For example, in book 8 we learn of the betrayal that a Tuscan tribe suffered at the hands of Mezentius, and in book 9 he continues his evil ways killing Trojans. The Gods have decided to stay out of the battle and so the following events have nothing to do with the justice that is familiar in epic poems. Both Mezentius and his son Lausus are killed, by Aeneid. I see these deaths as acts of revenge rather than justice, although Lausus’ death is more deserving. The death of his son is Mezentius’ true punishment. I see these deaths as acts of revenge because Mezentius tried to kill Aeneid, as well as all the other innocent people and the treachery he brought upon the aforementioned Tuscan tribe, and so Aeneas kills them. The fact that the innocent Lausus dies shows that the ‘justice’ portrayed in the Aeneid is much more malicious, and it doesn’t just affect the culprit. There’s also the case of the unfortunate people in the underworld that must wait 100 years to cross the river, through no fault of their own. Justice really does seem obscure in the Aeneid. Another instance of this is when the people of Carthage feel Dido’s death was just, simply because she fell in love with the wrong man, and through no fault of her own. I believe Turnus’ death to be the best example of the incomprehensible justice served in the Aeneid. His justice only prevails once they see fit, once it fits in with their plans. In the end, it becomes obvious that while justice is a powerful motivator and regulator in the lives of mortals, it is the will of the immortals that truly controls their lives, and their disfigured system of justice On the other hand, there are moments when actual justice is served. Examples include the groups beyond the river in the underworld and the story of Hercules and the giant for example. He goes to extreme lengths to kill the giant for all the robbery and murder he’s committed, and it’s just that Hercules puts a stop to it, even though it’s brought about by someone who isn’t quite immortal, and so possibly not what the gods perceive as justice. Although we’ve already established that the gods’ perspective is fairly warped in the Aeneid. The other case of actual justice involves king Minos, who spends eternity hearing the cases of people, unjustly executed, and finally getting the plea their cases. They are finally being treated fairly, even if it is beyond life. In the Odyssey however, deaths and misfortunes seem to come about through the idea of justice, and nothing else- no malicious or unfair punishments seem to prevail i. e. there seems to be a point behind them, rather than them just being malicious acts of immortals. For example, Zeus becomes angered at Odysseus because his men eat the sun god’s cattle, despite being warned not to; however he doesn’t let Odysseus die, because the sun god only asks that the crew be punished, because after all, Odysseus did warn them. However he does unavoidably get caught in the cross fire and this is how he winds up on Calypso’s island in the first place. Another example is Poseidon. He makes Odysseus’ aqua adventures a nightmare because he impairs Poseidon’s son Polyphemus’ vision, which goes against the rules of Xenia really. It is of course, Odysseus’ own fault because he becomes arrogant about what he did to Polyphemus, by telling him his name, after he’s left. Therefore it’s just and fair to punish him. Even though he’s such a great hero, he does a wrong act and is punished as any other man would be. Then of course, there is the case of the suitors; the epic conclusion to the Odyssey. Odysseus finally returns to find all the suitors and some of the maids running riot in his home, having raunchy sex, eating all the food, and drinking away his wealth. Odysseus is of course a bit bothered by this, so he decides, and Athene, who borrows Mentor’s image again, agrees that he, Telemachus and a couple of close friends will pick up their weapons and launch them through any part of the suitors they see fit. The fact that Athene helps proves that the act is just. Rarely do gods help out in a way that we can perceive as just in the Aeneid, because most of the time, the punishments are just vicious or over-exaggerated. So anyway, Telemachus sees to it that the ill-mannered maids are hung until they stop twitching, and Odysseus destroys all the suitors so that he and Penelope can live happily ever after, as they justly deserve. By the end of homer’s poem, everyone has been served the justice they’ve earned, both good and bad. I think it’s fair to say that justice is very important in both plays, but as a modern day reader, it’s easier to understand the justice in the Odyssey because at times, the events in the Aeneid seem so obscure.